Encyclopedia

Texts : Alexander Neckam

Paraphrased excerpts from the Latin De naturis rerum text, based on the 1863 edition by Thomas Wright. Some of the individual animal descriptions can be found under the Sources tab on various Beast pages.

Prologue to Book 1

A form worthy of admirable nature, lavishly endowed with delights, is content with a modest culture, sufficient for its adornment. Thus commendable intentions, radiating with serenity majesty, do not need too much decoration with elegant words. For is it necessary that the noble vine should luxuriate in the hills lavishly, for the exuberant delicious fruit to commend happiness? The purest fountain, which is no longer subject to the art of human labor, seems to quench the thirst of the drinker more sweetly than the wave that gushes forth from hidden channels. There are also some very precious gems, the virtue of which results in a greater efficacy, but also the sparkling light radiates more gracefully if they are mounted in silver rather than gold. Some liquors, too, commendable for their delightful flavor and sweetness, taste better in murrine or even Samian glasses than in gold ones. In this way, the material of this treatise for the edification of morals will be better prepared in simple words, excluding thoroughly embellished rhetorical flattery. Therefore, I have decided to use the little works that serve tropology, before I show painstaking attention to the difficult subtleties of the points. Phaeton, with his youthful lack of control of the chariot of the sun, caused his own destruction. Icarus, in the rashness of his youth, dared to commit himself to parts of the air too remote from the face of the earth in the impetuous audacity of his indiscreet will, to groan at the unhappiness of the outcome. Atlas is said to have supported the starry sky, but the consolation of his labors was not forsaken by Hercules. But I implore the support of him, who is not just a light of the air, but the glory of the whole world. Therefore, the true sun of justice, which causes light to shine out of darkness, dispels the darkness of erroneous ignorance and the darkness of vices in us. For in this little work we invite the reader to the works of light, so that after rejecting the works of darkness he may finally enjoy eternal light. I therefore decided to commend certain natures of things in writing, so that the mind of the reader, having investigated their properties, may return to the origin of things, that is, to the maker of things, so that, admiring him in his creatures, he may spiritually kiss the feet of the Creator, that is, justice and mercy. However, I do not want the reader to think that I wish to investigate the nature of things philosophically or physically, for I wish to establish a moral treatise. I therefore leave the golden chain of Homer to others, who proclaim the liberty of which it is said in the Gospel, "If the Son shall set you free, you shall be truly free." Therefore, from him, who must be the beginning of our intention and actions, and the end of our labor, we thought it worthy to begin a treatise, so that guided by him we might both make progress and be able to benefit others.

The Hanged Hawk (Book 1, chapter 24)

How true it is, as the philosophers say, that he who is feared by many must fear many. In Great Britain, therefore, a certain king, indulging in aerial hunting, marveled at the swift flight of a certain nobleman's hawk, the vigorous efforts, the agile movements, and the happy success. But behold, an eagle pursued the hawk with sudden ambushes like a violent storm. The hawk, taking flight, chose to hide among the sheep within the hedges. But the eagle, resting on the ground, circled the flock several times outside, trying to see if by any chance the hawk could be brought under his control, but in thrusting his head violently into a fence woven of wickers, he becomes prey to a hawk, which seized the eagle's head with sharp talons. Both soldiers and noble youths, as well as the king's servants, therefore committed to the competition with various pursuits, some to give support to the hawks, others to contemplate the outcome of the matter. And behold, a joyous cry arose in the large group, and they praised the hawk's victory over the eagle with the most worthy commendation. But the king alone, grieved that the royal bird should be treated dishonorably, accused the hawk of treason, deeming him guilty of an injury to his majesty, because he had killed his master; and, in order to strike fear into his people, the king ordered the hawk to be hanged. For this is the main tendency of the powerful to be feared, so that they can hide the fear they have of others.

On the parrot (Book 1, chapter 37)

There was a soldier in Great Britain who had a parrot of great nobility, whom he loved very tenderly. And the soldier, traveling abroad, saw a parrot near the mountains of Gelboe, and remembering the one he had at home, he said, "Our parrot greets you in its cage, like you." Hearing the bird's greeting, the parrot fell down like a dying bird. The soldier, having been deceived by the fraud of the fowl, and returning home after completing his pilgrimage, told what he had seen. The soldier's parrot carefully listened to his master's report, and pretending to be in pain fell from the perch on which he was perched, like one dying. The whole family of the house was surprised, groaning over the sudden accident. But the lord commanded that he should be placed under the sun, that he might enjoy the healthy breeze, which, taking the opportunity of the time, flew away and never returned. The master groaned, and the whole house complained that he had been deceived. They remembered the many comforts which the parrot was wont to give them, and cursed the mountain parrot for so great a fraud. A rational animal ought to be ashamed of being so often seduced by experienced things. The teachings that the events recommend in writing are not always to be relied upon for external actions. For appearances, though they may seem to be a mirror or a certain message of the mind, are sometimes a traitor.

On birds of prey (Book 1, chapter 79)

It is often asked by some why among birds of prey the females are larger and bolder than the males, and live longer. Notice, therefore, that birds living from prey are choleric and thus very hot. Males, on the other hand, are hot and dry in complexion. But dryness causes constriction and smallness, because its movement is toward the center. Females are warm and moist, and thus have both causes of expansion, because heat dissolves, moisture expands. For both males and females the movement is from the center, hence the females are larger and bolder. For in them the moisture mitigates the heat, and therefore the heat does not quickly burn in them, as moisture resists heat. But in males, due to innate dryness, both by sex and by complexion, heat quickly burns in them, and passes into melancholy. Hence they quickly become lazy and timid, and live but a short time.

Prologue to Book 2

The heart of the Father uttered the word that is good, indeed even goodness itself. For out of the fullness of his substance the Father begot from eternity the word, like unto himself in all things, and equal in all things. This word is the language of the Father, because "he spoke and it was done". For he disposes the wisdom of the Father, and commands things to be brought into being. This word is also the pen of the scribe who writes quickly, because the wisdom of the Father writes all things, so that the wisdom of God shines forth in things. Therefore the world itself, inscribed by the pen of God, is a certain letter to the intelligent, representing the power of the artist, with the same wisdom and kindness. And as the whole world is inscribed, so is the whole letter, but to the intelligent and the one who investigates the natures of things, for the knowledge and praise of the Creator. Nor would I say this because of the round shape of the world, although the perfection of the founder may shine forth in this, but because every creature represents God's power, wisdom, and kindness. For they speak of the power of the Father by which things are powerful. But substantial properties make it a powerful thing. But the wisdom of God is told by the color of a thing, and its beauty, and its shape, with the shape and arrangement of its parts and their number. But the preservation of the thing in being and the usefulness of the same speak of the kindness of the supreme artist. For there is not even a common herb that does not have many advantages in itself. For this, look at the many species of birds, each different from the other in its chatter. Consider the diversity of animals, and you will find that each species claims its own type of vocal sound. Lions roar, donkeys bray, sheep bleat, bulls roar, frogs croak, and so you will find in others every species of animal distinguished by its sound. Pay attention to the noble creature, I am talking about man, you will hardly find anyone exactly like it. Therefore, do not the diversity of animals' faces, forms, and voices speak of the wisdom of God? Add to that, because the higher bodies in a certain way more closely express the power and wisdom and kindness, but also the immensity and eternity, of God than the lower ones. For they are not subject to so great an alteration as these. Again, the higher are greater than the lower. For to omit the firmament, which is much greater than the sun, it is evident that the sun is one hundred and sixty-six times and a fraction greater than the earth [a good estimate; it is actually about 109 times]. Therefore, the size of the solar body and the splendor and beauty, undiminished by the passage of time, teach how great is the power of the founder, how great the wisdom, how great the kindness. For the sun is set in a high place, that it may shine upon many. O man, the brightness of the sun serves you, but you serve the darkness. You deserve to be involved in vices. But when the superior are greater than the inferior, they speak more faithfully of the immensity of God. The longer they remain in existence, the more closely they declare the eternity of the Creator. Add to this, that since the highest hold the highest peace, but the lowest are subject to multiple disturbances, they teach us as creatures to tend to the higher, to seek peace. For what is pleasant, sweet, calm, without peace? The higher ones are also of much more elegant beauty and dignified form than the lower ones. In these, then, what pleasantness, what charm are we looking for? Is not the sun much brighter and more decent than the lowest things? But God is infinitely more worthy than every form which He has created, greater than every quantity. Let us make this the end of our actions, the reward of our labors. For he himself is the truth. He, therefore, who writes everything, is the leader of this work, and I establish the end while I am writing these things. Now after we have treated of the air and its ornament, the natural order seems to desire that we should deal with the waters and their ornament, I speak of the fishes.

On fish in general (Book 2, chapter 22)

Fish do not breathe, as is clear from the doctrine of the Later Analects. Nor do they have a trachea. They also lack eyelids, the use of which is supplied by the shading of the waters. Colors also separate the ends, and not the middle, but you will see the red color among the extremes. Hence it is that the fishermen, being knowledgeable in their art, do not use red colors, nor white, nor black, but a middle color, lest, of course, the frightened fish should take flight. By fish are signified curious thoughts and wanderings. These do not allow a person to breathe, they tire him with so much anxiety. By the eyelids understand discretion, in that they rule and direct the sight; through the changeableness and inconstancy of the waters. As, therefore, fish lack eyelids, the loss of which is compensated by the use of water, so vain meditations do not pay attention to the judgment of discretion, but instead of discretion use the discourse of wandering thoughts. Even the curious are often disappointed by the strength and acuteness of the natural genius, but they make up for the lack of subtlety by the benefit of doctrine. And according to this, the eyelids will represent the sharpness of the intellect, the water the teaching. As indeed fish discern the extreme colors, but not the middle ones, so those who traverse the paths of this great sea, in which there are so many reptilian thoughts, which are manifestly good, or manifestly evil, but in the midst of which they rush themselves, worthy of detestation. Fools also pay attention to happiness subsisting in their own choice in worldly affairs and the desire of family property, but they have no respect for mediocrity, when it is in itself golden.

Of the fish having one eye in the shape of a shield (Book 2, chapter 24)

A fish is found in the northern sea having an eye in the front in the shape of a triangular shield. This fish and the white bear, which also inhabits the sea, pursue each other. For the sea bear feeds on fish. [see Olga Vassilieva-Codognet for more on this fish]

Of monstrous fish (Book 2, chapter 25)

They also have their own monster fish, in which nature seems to play, if only because they are not destitute of their own advantage, even if it is less known to us. For it is as if there were fish in the waters of the sea that is armored like a soldier. Another fish looks like a monk. What is it that "the beautiful woman above ends as a dark fish?" In all these the divine power gives rise to wonder. Indeed, if you were to take thoughts as fish, you would find in them monstrous signs of imagination. For the prodigious figures of thought exceed the audacity of painters and poets, of whom it is said: "For painters and poets there has always been a power to dare anything." Yet the mind is a painter, but it not only paints, but also imagines forms which even the power of nature would not deign to bring to light.

Of the fish that delights in shiny bodies (Book 2, chapter 45)

The Mediterranean Sea is sometimes so calm in the summer season, that those who read the sea, having laid aside their clothes, commit themselves to bathing in the sea, so the movement of their bodies will produce a light wind. Now there is a sea fish of great size, which will choose the smoothest body and play with it for a long time, but in the end, if it has the opportunity, it will devour the same. But the cunning of the sailors sometimes eludes the snares of that fish. For it sometimes happened that a boy, coming up from the rudder, lost his grip, and was thrown into the sea; but sometimes one of the sailors goes down into the sea of his own free will, in order that he may free an anchor sticking to the ground. There is an importunate enemy, said to be a fish, and he embraces the human body, as if he were playing. But the sailors cast the ropes that were in the ship into the sea, that the sailor might cling firmly to them, being aware of such a crisis. In the meantime, while the man binds himself with the ropes as best he can, the men in the ship throw hay or straw shaped like men and covered with a white linen cloth into the sea. Seeing the shininess of these, the fish swims with the greatest speed, and leaves the real prey because it is deluded by the imaginary. The fish of the sea are drawn with the utmost vigilance into the ship, and the enemy's ambush, embracing the empty prey, is foiled by the boat. This fish represents the enemy of the human race, whose mockery is the unfortunate sinner, who afterwards, unless he repents, is plunged into the abyss of misery. Diligence must therefore be used to evade his fraud, whose game is fraud.

Of animals (Book 2, chapter 99)

It is not shameful for me to admit that I do not know the names of individual species of animals, much less to admit that I do not know their natures. There are also many natures of things discovered both by daily use and experience, which it would be superfluous to commit to writing, because they are commonly known. But some things are so secret, it is as if nature was saying, "My secrets for me, my secrets for me!" Let us therefore tread the middle way, so that we neither bring forth common things except rarely into the middle, nor presume to guarantee that we will be able to reveal those things which require more detailed investigations.

Of the raven and the fox (Book 2, chapter 126)

Apuleius relates in his apologue that the raven and fox fox were going to a certain bit of meat with equal desire, but with unequal speed. For the raven, relying on its swift wings, carried the flesh to the tree on which it perched. With his innate cunning, the fox began to flatter the raven, asserting that Apollo should be happy with two only birds, namely, the raven and the swan. He also added that in no endowment of nature should the swan be preferred to the crow, except because nature has ennobled the swan with a sweeter song. Hearing these things, the raven began to believe these unusual announcements, yet he indignant that he was considered inferior to a swan, even in song, and while he tried to sing, he began to croak. So then the bird, by opening its beak, lost the meat it was holding. From this you should see that the door of the mouth is necessary. For there is a time to be silent, and there is also a time to speak. You can also learn in this apologetic that not every spirit is to be believed. For flattery blinds the mind, and while it shamelessly exalts the mind, it makes a man forget his own weakness.

On Actaeon (Book 2, chapter 137)

The poets, veiling moral instruction with their poetry, imagine that Actaeon, transformed into a stag, was torn to pieces by his dogs. In this the lustful hunting is criticized. But by Actaeon are signified those who consume large estates and extensive patrimony in useless expenses, in illegal hunting and gambling, and in drunkenness and unholy pleasures. They are transformed into stags, whose whole love and whole attention are confined to hunting. Let those be torn to pieces by the dogs whose resources are wasted in the pursuit of hunting. Or at least they are changed into stags, who, having lavishly spent their possessions, take flight, hiding in remote parts. Are not the great men exposed to the teeth of courtiers' dogs, and their deeds shamelessly torn to pieces by them? Frustrated, the powerful cries out: "I am Actaeon; know your master." Little do they seem to know their master, but dishonor him with indecent words. But what is the signification that Actaeon caught Diana naked, except that many people use the art of hunting to make hunters poor and needy? For who is he who does not know that Diana presides over the woods? This changed Actaeon into a deer. Indeed, the pursuit of hunting changes many into wild and light-hearted manners. The deer therefore signifies levity and inconstancy, for the same thing has many meanings. If through Diana you receive wisdom, then this is plain. For he who is given over to pleasures and curiosities, it seems that wisdom is naked and lacks decent adornment. But I would like to consider these things more precisely. For Diana is said to be like the gods, that is, renewed or renewing through the days. This is wisdom. While she washes her body with water, she does not want to admit anyone who watches her with impudence. Diana's nymphs are those who give careful attention to wisdom. When the mysteries and secrets of wisdom are discussed, not everyone is to be admitted here and there. "Cast out," said Solomon, "the scoffer, and strife will go out with him." This is Actaeon who intrusively intrudes on the secret conversations of the wise. But he must be changed into a stag, so that he may be forced to take flight.