Biography

Albertus Magnus, also known as Albert the Great, Albert of Cologne and Saint Albert, was born shortly before 1200 CE (perhaps circa 1193) and died in 1280 CE. He was a Dominican monk, a bishop, a scholar, an author and a commentator on the works of Aristotle.

Albert was born in the city of Lauingen in Swabia (southern Germany), to a wealthy family of minor nobility with a connection to the Hohenstaufens, sometime rulers in the Holy Roman Empire. His writings suggest he was in childhood a keen observer of nature, and his noble ties likely gave him access to the sport of falconry. In early adulthood he traveled to Padua in the Lombardy region to begin his studies in the liberal arts, possibly at the newly-formed University of Padua. In 1223 Albert became a mendicant friar in the Dominican Order, and began his education in theology. In 1228 his learning was put to use when he became a lecturer at various Dominican houses in Germany. In 1241 The Order sent him to study at the University of Paris, where he earned a degree of master of theology, then lectured there until 1248. He was a very popular instructor and his courses were flooded with students. It was during his time in Paris that Albert became interested in the newly-available works of Aristotle. Paris was also where he met Thomas of Aquinas, who was one of his students; the close connection of the two lasted until Thomas's death. In 1248 Albert, accompanied by Thomas, went to Cologne to become rector of a new Dominican school, where he continued teaching and writing. In 1254 he was elected Prior Provincial of the Dominican Order's Teutonic province, which obliged him to travel through the area visiting Dominican houses. During his travels he continued to study nature, studies that informed his writing. In 1260, much against his desire to remain a simple friar, Albert was appointed by Pope Alexander IV as bishop of Ratisbon (now Regensburg). He returned to the priory at Cologne in 1271 where he remained until his death in 1280.

Writing

Albert was a prolific writer, and wrote on many topics. He produced several commentaries on the works of Aristotle, newly introduced to the West in Albert's time. Much of his writing was on theological (Christian) topics, including commentaries on books of the Bible and treatises on Christian doctrine, but many of his books were about natural science (what would now called the disciplines of astronomy, botany, chemistry, geology, geography, physics, physiology and zoology).

In his scientific works he emphasized the importance of direct observation and experimentation over the automatic acceptance of ancient authorities ("The aim of natural science is not simply to accept the statements of others, but to investigate the causes that are at work in nature"). In De coelo et mundo he says "In studying nature we have not to inquire how God the Creator may, as He freely wills, use His creatures to work miracles and thereby show forth His power: we have rather to inquire what Nature with its immanent causes can naturally bring to pass", which was an unusual stance for anyone of his time. The result of this attitude was that he often questioned the accuracy of earlier authors.

The following list is just a sample of Albert's known works. His complete works when published in the nineteenth century required 38 volumes.

• De Animalibus (On animals)
• De causis et processu universitatis a prima causa (On the causes and process of the universe from the first cause)
• De causis proprietatum elementorum (On the causes of the properties of elements)
• De coelo et mundo (On heaven and earth)
• De intellectu et intelligibili (On the understanding and the intelligible)
• De lapidibus et mineralibus (On stones and minerals)
• De motibus animalium (On the motions of animals)
• De natura et origine animae (On the nature and origin of the soul)
• De natura locorum (On the nature of places)
• De nutrimento et nutribili (On nourishment and the nourished)
• In libros Aristotelis de somno et vigilia (Aristotle's book on sleep and wakefulness)
• In libros Meteororum (On moving celestial bodies)
• In librum Aristotelis de Anima (Aristotle's book on the soul)
• In librum Aristotelis de Generatione et Corruptione (Aristotle's book on generation and corruption)
• In librum Aristotelis de Praedicamentis (Aristotle's book De Predicaments)
• In librum Aristotelis de spiritu et respiratione (Aristotle's book on spirit and respiration)
• In librum de sensu et sensato (On the senses and sensation)
• Liber Methaphysicae (On metaphysics)
• Liber Physicorum (On physics)
• Liber de aetate sive de iuventute et senectute (On age or youth and old age)
• Liber de memoria et reminiscentia (On memory and remembering)
• Liber de morte et vita (On death and life)
• Liber de vegetabilibus et plantis (On vegetation and plants)
• Speculum astronomiae (Mirror of astronomy)

De animalibus

The De animalibus (On animals) is an encyclopedic account of animal knowledge of the time. The first 19 books are based on the 19 books of Aristotle's De animalibus, but Albert expanded Aristotle's text considerably, adding commentary and more information. The Aristotle text Albert used was translated in the early 13th century into Latin by Michael Scot. The transmission of the text had a tortuous path, from Greek to Arabic to Latin, resulting in many errors of translation; it is unlikely Albert could read Arabic, so the Scot translation was all he had to work with.

The individual accounts of animals in Books 22-26 were added by Albert, probably based on other encyclopedias and the texts earlier authors, but with additions and corrections from his own observations. Albert frequently references Avicenna, who produced books on medicine as well as an Arabic translation of Aristotle's De animalibus that had been translated into Latin by Albert's time. He also uses material from Pliny the Elder and Gaius Julius Solinus, as well as an unknown Jewish writer named Jorach or Yorah, though he does not seem impressed with their accuracy. It is thought that Albert also used parts of Liber de naturis rerum by Thomas of Cantimpré; some of the individual animal accounts on Books 22-26 are very similar to Thomas's, though Albert does not credit him by name.

Unlike most medieval encyclopedists, Albert questioned his sources, and unusually for his time used his own direct observations of animals, even doing experiments to determine if the standard stories were true. For example, in his account of the ostrich he says "There is an anecdote that this bird can eat and digest iron, but I have been unable to corroborate its truth, for on a number of occasions I have offered pieces of iron to several ostriches but they refused to eat them. However, they avidly gobbled up up some large dried bones that had been broken into short lengths, as well as some pebbles. ... These are my personal observations of the ostrich, which to me seems not so much a bird, as a cross between a walking and flying animal." (Scanlan. page 317) Other examples of Albert correcting earlier writer's animal accounts can be seen in the Beasts section of this site.

The work is in 26 books. Books 1-21 books cover animals in general; Books 22-26 cover animals individually. This list is based on the Stadler edition.

1. About the members of animals, and especially about the most perfect animal, which is man
2. The comparison of other animals with man is treated according to conformity and difference
3. About the origin of the similar limbs that are in animals
4. How animals that have no blood participate in sense, voice and sleep; difference between male and female
5. On the generation of animals in general
6. On the nature, anatomy and generation of eggs
7. On the behavior and life of animals; Of the progress and infirmities of animals
8. On the behavior of animals: how they fight with each other; their prudence and folly; their cunning and skill
9. On the principles and origin of the generation of man
10. On the obstacles to generation
11. On the way we learn about animals
12. On the cause of similar and different members, and their complexity
13. On the cause and nature of the internal members [organs]
14. On the external members of animals
15. On the causes of generation in animals
16. On the introduction of the soul; on sterility in animals
17. On the causes of ovulation and eggs
18. On the generation of perfect animals; on the differences of the sexes; on the causes of few or many children
19. On the things which happen from the nature of the senses and parts of animals
20. On the nature of animal bodies
21. On the perfect and imperfect, and the cause of perfection and imperfection
22. Quadrupeds; On the nature of animals
23. Birds; in which the nature of birds is treated first in general, and second in particular
24. Aquatic animals; On animals which are strictly aquatic
25. Serpents; Of the animals which are of the nature of serpents
26. Worms [and insects]

At the end of De animalibus Albert says of the work (Scanlan, page 449):

Here ends the Book of Animals, by which the entire opus on the natural sciences is brought to a close. In this endeavor I have steered a course to explain the writings of the Peripatetics [i.e. Aristotle and his school] to the best of my ability. No one can find here an account of my personal views about natural philosophy. However, if anyone has doubts on this score, let him compare the assertions made in our books with the writings of the Peripatetics themselves, and then either find fault or agree with me in my role as interpreter and commentator of their science. But if he criticizes without reading and comparing, it can only be concluded that he does so out of antipathy or ignorance, and I have little regard for the fault-finding of such men.

Manuscripts

Given Albert's importance and fame during his life and after, the number of existing manuscript copies of De animalibus is relatively small. There are about 40 manuscript copies of the full text plus a few more containing extracts, and there are several early printed editions. Three of the manuscripts date from the 13th century, 10 from the 14th century, the rest from the 15th century [Stadler, volume 1, page vii]. Very few of the manuscripts are illustrated, and none have extensive illustrations. Bibliothèque Nationale de France, lat. 16169 has good illustrations at the start of each of the animal books (22-26), but they are of groups of animals; the individual animal accounts are not illustrated.

The earliest known manuscript of De animalibus, Historisches Archiv der Stadt Köln, W 258A, was produced around 1261, probably by Albert himself. This is the manuscript used by Stadler for his 1919-21 edition.

Stadler (volume 1, page x-xi) lists a few manuscripts to which he gave a letter designation. The manuscript location and shelfmark where known are the ones used on this site, which may not exactly match Stadler's list. More manuscripts are listed under the Manuscripts tab above.

A	Biblioteca Universitaria di Bologna, 106
B	Universitätsbibliothek Basel, UBH F I 19-20
C	Historisches Archiv der Stadt Köln, W 258A
D	Bibliothèque Municipale de Dijon, Ms. 360 [262]
L	Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Plut.84.18
M	Stiftsbibliothek Melk, Cod. 72 [158]
O	Oroniensis Ball. 103 [not located]
P	Bibliothèque Nationale de France, lat. 6518
Q	Bibliothèque Nationale de France, lat. 6519
S	Bibliothèque municipale de Soissons, Cabb. 3 ms. 33 [Books 1-10?, not located]
X	Bibliothek zu Brussels, Bruxellensis Nr. 290 [not located]

The extensive text on the falcon (from the middle of Book 23) also appears on its own or combined with other texts in a few manuscripts (e.g. Bibliothèque Nationale de France, fr. 2003). All of Book 23 on birds also appears on its own in at least one manuscript (Bibliothèque Nationale de France, lat. 6749A), and along with Book 22 on quadrupeds in another manuscript (Bibliothèque Nationale de France, lat. 6521).

Animals

Albert describes about 476 animals in Books 22-26 of the De animalibus. As is usual in medieval encyclopedias, the same animal may be described in two or more chapters under different names, or may be described in two or more books as different categories of animal. There are about 373 "unique" species in the text. The first 21 books, covering the properties of animals in general, also describe some of the same individual animals.

While most of the animal descriptions are fairly brief, Albert had a great deal to say about a few animals, with some taking up several manuscript pages. Based on manuscript Bibliothèque Nationale de France, lat. 16169:

• Dog : 3 pages
• Eagle : 2 pages
• Falcon : 17 pages
• Horse : 10 pages

In the lists below, the animal names and appearance order are derived from:

• A Latin edition by Stadler, based on manuscript Historisches Archiv der Stadt Köln, W 258A, thought to be Albert's own copy
• An English translation of Books 22-26 by Scanlan, based on the Stadler edition
• Manuscript Historisches Archiv der Stadt Köln, W 258A
• Manuscript Bibliothèque Nationale de France, lat. 16169

Click the arrow to the left of the category name to show or hide the list for that category.

Book 22: Quadrupeds (113 entries) Book 23: Birds (114 entries) Book 24: Aquatic animals (139 entries) Book 25: Serpents (61 entries) Book 26: Worms (insects) (49 entries)