Herodotus [c. 484 – c. 425 BCE] (Histories, Book 1.80) Assembling all the camels that followed his army bearing food and baggage, he took off their burdens and set men upon them equipped like cavalrymen; having so equipped them he ordered them to advance before his army against Croesus' horse; he charged the infantry to follow the camels, and set all his horse behind the infantry. ... The reason of his posting the camels to face the cavalry was this: horses fear camels and can endure neither the sight nor the smell of them; this then was the intent of his device, that Croesus' cavalry, on which the Lydian relied for the winning of some glory, might be of no use. So when battle was joined, as soon as the horses smelt and saw the camels they turned to flight, and all Croesus' hope was lost. - [Godley translation]

Aristotle [ca. 350 BCE] (De animalibus Book 2, 2.5; 6, 17.2; 8, 10): [Book 2, 2.5] Camels have a part peculiar to themselves, called the hump upon the back; the Bactrian camel differs from the Arabian; the one has two humps, the other but one; and they have another hump below, like the one on their back, upon which the rest of their body is supported, when they go down upon their knees. The camel has four mammae, like the cow, and a tail like an ass, and the pudendum is behind; it has but one knee in each leg, and not many joints, as some persons say; this appearance arises from the position of the abdomen. [Book 6, 17.2] The male camel also is violent at this time [breeding season], whether it is a man or a camel that approaches him, and he will at all times fight with a horse. [Book 8, 10] The camel prefers water that is dirty and thick; nor will it drink from a stream before it has disturbed the water. It can remain without drinking four days, after which it drinks a great quantity. - [Cresswell translation, 1887]

Pliny the Elder [1st century CE] (Natural History, Book 8, 26): The East pastures camels among its flocks of cattle; of these there are two kinds, the Bactrian and the Arabian, which differ in that the former have two humps on the back and the latter one, with a second hump beneath the chest on which they can rest their weight; but both kinds resemble oxen in having no teeth in the upper jaw. All however perform the services of beasts of burden, and also of cavalry in battles; their speed is below that of horses. But the two kinds differ in dimensions, as also in strength; and a camel will not travel beyond its customary march, nor carry more than the regulation load. They possess an innate hatred for horses. They can endure thirst for as much as four days, and when they have an opportunity they replenish themselves both for the past interval and for the future, stirring up the water by trampling with their fore feet before they drink, otherwise they do not enjoy the draught. They live for fifty years, some even for a hundred; although even camels are liable to rabies. A method has been discovered of gelding even the females intended for war; this by denying them intercourse increases their strength. - [Rackham translation]

Aelianus [170-230 CE] (On the Characteristics of Animals, Book 17, 7): The camel greatly dislikes clear, pure water for drinking, and regards muddy, dirty water as the pleasantest. Indeed if it comes to a stream or a lake, it does not bend down to drink until it has stirred up the slime with its feet and destroyed the beauty of the water. And if it goes unwatered, it can endure for as much as eight days. - [Scholfield translation]

Gaius Julius Solinus [3rd century CE] (De mirabilibus mundi / Polyhistor, Chapter 49.9-11): [Chapter 49.9] Bactria produces the most powerful camels. Although Arabia also breeds many camels, they are different. The Arabian type has a double hump on its back, and the Bactrian a single hump. They never wear away their feet, for their feet are fleshy with certain backwards-facing excrescences of a lung-like quality. Thence, there is an antithetical problem when they walk: there is no supporting protection for the pressure of standing. They are used for two purposes. Some are suitable for bearing burdens, while others are swifter. They will not accept a more than reasonable load, and neither will they wish to go beyond an accustomed distance. [Chapter 49.10] At mating time they are enraged by lust to such a degree that they are cruel when they seek their pleasure. They hate horses. They endure thirst for four days. When an opportunity of drinking arises, they take enough to satisfy themselves for their past privation, and to serve them for a long time in the future. [Chapter 49.11] They desire muddy water, and refuse clear. Unless the liquid is already rather filthy, they stir up the silt by continuous trampling so it becomes turbid. They live for 100 years, unless by chance they are carried across into a foreign country, and contract diseases from the changed air. The females are prepared for the wars. It was found that their desire to mate is removed by a certain operation. For it is thought that the camels become stronger if they are prevented from mating. - [Arwen Apps translation, 2011]

Isidore of Seville [7th century CE] (Etymologies, Book 12, 1.35): The camel gets its name either from the Greek chamai meaning low and short, because camels lie down while they are being loaded, so they are shorter or lower; or from the Greek chamai (meaning hump) because they have a hump on their back. Most camels come from Arabia. Camels from other lands have one hump, but Arabian camels have two.

Alexander Neckam [1157-1217 CE] (De naturis rerum, Book 2.142): The Arabian camels have two humps on their backs, the Bactrians has one. Their feet are never worn away. Some are adapted to bear burdens, others are more swift; but none do receive more than just weights, nor do they want to go out more than the usual distances. They are carried away by the desire for children to such an extent that they rage. They hate horses. They tolerate thirst even for four days; but when an opportunity is given to drink, they are filled to the extent that their past desires are satisfied, and it will be useful for a long time in the future. They drink muddy water, but they flee the pure ones; if the water is not muddy they stir up the mud so that it becomes turbid by constant agitation. They live for a hundred years, unless perhaps they are taken to another country where the changed air causes diseases. To prepare the females for war, it has been found that their desire for union is cut off by a certain gelding, for people think that they become stronger if they are prevented from intercourse. - [Wright/Badke]

Hildegard von Bingen [1098-1179 CE] (Physica, Book 7.2): The camel has a precipitous heat in it, but it is a bit tepid. Whence it is also tepid in the vicissitudes of its unstable ways. In its humps, it has the strength of a lion, panther, and horse; in the rest of its body, it has the nature of an ass. The hump near its neck has the strength of a lion; the next hump has the strength of a panther; and the next hump has the strength of a horse. From these natures the camel grows large and tall, and from them it is of such great strength that, were it not tame, it would surpass the lion and other beasts in strength. - [Throop translation]

Thomas of Cantimpré [circa 1200-1272 CE] (Liber de natura rerum, Quadrupeds 4.12): A camel is a deformed animal, as Jacobus says. Camels have two humps on their backs and another on their chests, on which they lean. They have long legs, a long neck, and a slow gait. Solinus: When it walks, it never rubs its feet back and forth, for its feet are fleshy with a quality like lungs. Hence it is the opposite of decay to those who walk. They have a double service: some are adapted to bear burdens, others are more destructive; but neither will they receive more than just weights, nor do they want to go out more than usual distances. When they are to be loaded, as Jacobus says, they are struck a little above the knees, and immediately bend their legs and lean towards the loads. Pliny: They are driven by desire for children. They hate horses. They endure thirst for four days: but when an opportunity of drinking is given, they are filled so much, that both past desires are satisfied, and as is future needs for a long time. They drink muddy waters, as Pliny says, they avoid pure ones, or stir up silt by continuous trampling, so that they become turbid. And this is the reason: muddy water nourishes more; therefore the camel rejects pure water without the elements of the earth, as if it were less nutritious and it craves mixed water for the sake of nourishment. As the Experimentator says, camels get rabies and gout, from which they die very easily. They do not have hooves, so they vehemently dislike having to walk on hard and long and stony roads, for they do not have shoes on their feet of strong leather. Moreover, the great Basilius says of camels, that they have a tenacious memory of evils, and bear a grudge and persevere in anger. And when it has been struck, having concealed its pain for a long time, when it finds an opportunity, it immediately returns the injury inflicted. Swallowing quickly, they reserve the food, so that they can chew again all night long, Liber rerum [says]. Camels are said to have this kind of piety, so that if someone in the herd or stable is prevented by illness and does not eat, the others abstain as if in sympathy. Pliny: They live for a hundred years, unless by chance they contract the diseases of the changed air when transferred to foreign places. They become stronger if they are prevented from mating. There is also another kind of camels, which they call dromedaries, which run at a wonderful speed. They give birth in the spring time. Those who are properly called camels have only one hump on their backs; but those who are called dromedaries, always have two humps on their backs. Female camels have four teats, like cows. The males of the camels have their staffs at the back, whence they come together. Aristotle: They have only one knee for each leg and the leg bends over it; and for each leg a calf like the calf of a cow's leg, since it is small in relation to the body. Now this animal is of an ugly appearance, and its feet are split in two, and at the back of its foot is a small patch, and between the cleft is a skin similar to that which is between the toes of a goose, and under its feet is much flesh. These lack teeth in the upper jaw. Pliny: A camel's brain, dried and taken in a drink with vinegar, quells palpitations, that is, 'fallings'. - [Badke translation/paraphrase]

Bartholomaeus Anglicus [13th century CE] (Liber de proprietatibus rerum, Book18.19): Camells are called Cameli, and have that name of a nowne of Gréeke, as Isidore sayth libro. 12. for when they be charged they bowe and lye downe, and are méeke to them that charge them. For méeke and short is called Caine in Gréeke. Or els they have that name of Camur in Gréeke, that is crooked, for when they take charge upon them, they bende and crooke the knées. Also Camelles bée beasts that beare charges and burthens, and are milde and softe, and ordayned to beare charge and cartage of men, and bée found in many countryes and landes, and namely in Arabia, and Camells of Arabia be divers from Camels of other landes, for a Camell of Arabia hath two bounches in the backe, and a Camell of another Lande, hath but one bounche in the backe, as Isidore saith in eodem. And libro. 8. capitulo 19. Plinius saieth in this manner: The Cast féedeth Camells among tame beastes, of which Camells is two manner kindes: For some are of Bactria, and some are of Arabia: the Camell of Arabia hath two bounches on the backe, and the Camell of Bactria hath but one in the backe, on the which he beareth his burthen: and another in the breast, and leaneth thereon. Camells be soothlesse above as Oxen are, and chew their cudde, as Oxen and Shéepe, as Isidore sayth libro. 12. and is clove footed, as it shall be sayde héereafter, and is full swifte, as Plinius sayth, and is therefore good in battayle and warre, and to beare charge and cariage. And the Camell goeth no more a daye, than he is wont to doe, nor taketh no more burthen than he is wont to beare. And the Camell hateth the Horse by kinde, and suffreth thirst, foure dayes, and stirreth the water with his feete when he drinketh, or els the drinks doth him no good. And the Camell liveth fiftie yeare, and some an hundred yeare, and wereth mad sometime. Camells be gelded that are ordained to battaile & to warre: for they be the stronger, if they be put from the worke of generation. Huc usque Plinius. Avicen[na] speketh of the Camel in this maner, the Camel he saith moveth first ye right soote as the Lyon doth, and onelye the Camell hath a hunch on his backe, & is choi•• footed, and hath fells in the clifts as it fareth in a Goose foote, and those clefts be fleshly as ye rielies of a Beare foot: and therefore men maketh the¯ shooes, least their feet be hurt that bée tender beneath. And sometime in the Camelles heart is a bone found, as there is in the heart of an Hart. And the Camell hath foure teates in the two uaders, as ye row hath, and the female Camell boweth her selfe & goeth on her knées, when shée wilt be coupled with the male. And her talent and desire is strong and fervent in time of love, & she eateth then but little, and desireth alway to bée assayled of the male, nigh to the place in which shée was first assailed. And as Arist[otle] saith, li. 5. it is one propertie of Camells to be solitary & alone in mountains in time of love, & no man may come nigh to them yt time, but the heard alone, and the Camells yard is sinewy & full hard. Therefore men make bow strings of such yardes. Item ibidem in eodem, Camells have certaine times ordeined to the worke of generation: the female nourisheth the colt in the wombe 12. moneths, and they ingender not before they be thrée yéere olde, & rest a yéere after loving. Also he sayth, libro. 8. that certaine manner of Camells bée gelded, to be the more able to flie: and saith, that such Camells be more swifter then horses, and that is because of large pase and wide, but héereof look within de Dromedatio. Aristotle sayth, lib. 9. cap. 17. that the Camell doth not the woorke of generation with his owne mother. For in a certaine citie a Camell was héeled with a mantell, & her owne sonne leape on her, and by falling of the cloth that she was covered with, hée knew it was his owne mother, and though hée did the déede, hée leaped downe & slew the man, that him had beguiled. Aristotle setteth this ensample, and other like of a horse of a certaine king. Also libr. 11. cap. 37. Plinius speaketh of Camells, and saieth, that among foure footed beasts camells ware bald as men do, & as the Estridge & certeine beasts among foules. Also he saith, that among beasts without hornes, the Camelles bée toothlesse in the over iawe, & accord therfore in téeth with beasts yt chew the cud, & in disposition of the wombe, but not in horns. And Ari[stole] li. 14. sayth, yt a beast that eateth thorny matter, hath not yt wombe as the camell, & an hard horned beast hath us téeth in either jaw, & therefore the Camell hath no teeth in either jaw, but onely beneath, though he be hornelesse. Then it néedeth that the Camels wombe be of such disposition, and is like to the womb of beastes that be toothlesse in the over jawe. And the making of his téeth is like to the making of the téeth of horned beastes. And it followeth there, and for the Camells meate is thorny and hard, it néedeth that his tongue be fleshie for the hardnesse of the palat. Therefore kinde uset the palat as the earthy part of téeth: and therfore the camell cheweth his cud as horned beasts do, for his wound is like to the wombe of horned beasts, & hée taketh his meate in his first wombe, & all undigest, and in the second wombe the meat beginneth to defie, and is better defied in the third womb, and in the fourth wombe is full digestion and compleate, and this diversitie of wombes is néedful for hardnesse of his meat, for he grindeth and cheweth his meate little with his teeth. And li. 13. Aristotle sayth, yt the camell hath no gall distinguished upon yt liver, no more then the Elephant hath, for the matter of this liver is full whole & sound, and his bloud is kindlye sweete: and in such beastes is no gall found, but if it be found in full small veines, and therefore olde men sayde, that Anaxagoras sayth, that Camells be beasts of long lyfe, for they be gallesse, and beastes with lyttle galls live longer then beasts with much Gall. And therefore Anaxagoras sayde, that gall is cause of all sharpe sicknesses, when gall is multiplyed unto the lungs, and shedde to other partes of the bodye. But Aristotle sayth, that this is false, for many beasts in whom no gall is found, have ryght sharpe sicknesse sometime and evills that slaye them, as it fareth in Camelles that have the Podagre and phrensie, and by the Podagree their feet be strained, and this evil slaieth them sometime, and bée neverthelesse without gall, ut dicit ibidem. Huc usque Aristoti. Also in Dietis universalibusConstant: speaketh of the Camell, & sayth, yt the camell is most hottest beast of kind, and is therefore leane by kinde, for the heat draweth of all fatnesse of the bloud, & therefore the Camell is leane. And Camells milke is more thin then milke of other beasts, and lesse unctuous, and lesse nourishing, and more heating and opening & departing. And milke is nought else but bloud, oft sodde, and therefore Camelles milke is fall in savour and sharpe, & tempereth therefore those humours & maketh them thin. And cow milke is contrarye thereto, & is thicke & unctuous, & nourisheth much. Looke other properties within de Dromedatio. - [Batman]